International Administration

Department of Political Science and Public Administration
Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko
MPA 716 (International Administration) Course Outline
Introduction
International Administration introduces you to the nitty-gritty of administration at the international milieu. It considers the factors that contribute to the development of the discipline as a field of study within the context of Public Administration. The course also explains United Nations as the umbrella body of international administration in addition to the nature and approaches e.t.c as they relate to public administration in general as well as its practice in various regions of the world. This course aims at exposing students to how international organizations are administered; the politics involved in their administration as well as the approaches used to explain their operations. In view of the importance of administration in any human organization, the course is aimed at making students have greater appreciation of the unique administration of international global organizations through the following topics.
1. Introduction – The emerging polar structure; International Economy; Economic disparity between North and South.
2. Transnational problems and International Cooperation.
3. International decision making
4. North-South Relations and South-South Cooperation
5. Globalisation
6. International Organisations
7. Specialised International Organisations –ILO, IMF, World Bank and World Trade Organisation
8. International Law
9. Role and functions of International Institutions – ECOWAS as Case Study
10. International Civil Service (League of Nations and United Nations in focus).
Reading Texts
Rourke,  J.T.  and  Boyer,  M.A  (2002).  World  Politics.  United  States:   McGraw-Hill/Dushkin.    
Hirst,   P.   and   Thompson   G.   (1996).   Globalization   in   Question:   The   International   Economy   and   the   Possibilities   of   Governance.   Cambridge,  UK:  Polity  Press.
Bellany,  lan  (1997).  The  Environment  in  World  Politics:  Exploring  the   Limits.  Lyme,  NH:  Edward  Elgar

Caldwell,  L.K.  (1996).  International  Environmental  Policy.   Dinkham  NC:  Duke  University  Press.  
Rouke,  J.  T and Boyer,  M.  (2000).  World Politics.     Mccgrur-  Hill/Dustikin  
Hodgetts,  R.  M.  and  Lultians,  F.  (1997).  International  Management  New  York:    McGraw-Hill  Companies,  Inc.    
Greg,  Mills  and  Claudia,  Mutseheler  (Ed).  (2000).  Mercosur  and  SADC:   A  Publication  of  the  South  Africa  institute  of  International  Affairs.    
Akintoye,  E.K.  and  Grace,  Awosika  (2000).  Development:  Theory  and  Administration   (A   Nigerian   Perspective).   Lagos:   Alsun   International  Ltd.    
EL-Agriaa,  Ali  (1997).  Economic  Integration  Worldwide.  New  York:   St.  Martne’s.  
Pattman,   Ralph,   (ed).   (1996).   Understanding   International   Political   Economy,  Boulder  Co:  Lynne  Runner  Woods  N  1995  "Economic   Idea   and   International   Relations   Beyond   Rational   Neglect"   International  Studies  39:161-180.  
Brier  J.  L.,  (1990) The  Law  of  Nations.  New  York:  Oxford  
David,   K.J and Jeffy   (2003).   A   Model   for   Today's   International   Civil   Servant, Cambridge,  UK:  Polity  Press.
Kunle Ajayi (2010) International Administration and Economic Relations in a Changing World, Accra: Damas Educational Services
Dag,  Kammarskjold  (1991) Re  International  Civil  Service  in  Law  and   in  Fact.  Oxford:  Clarendon.  









INTERNATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
INTRODUCTION
Administration, as an act of organization and management is a universal phenomenon. This is so because, any collectivity of people at all levels of social, political, cultural or religious contacts have planned goals which can only be attained by organizing, coordinating and managing the available human and non-human resources at their disposal.
Augustus Adebayo (1985) conceives administration as ‘the organization and direction of persons in order to accomplish a specific end’. Organisation is the structural framework of establishments while management is the personnel and technical know-how required to galvanise human resources in order to achieve the goals of the organization.
Public Administration is the process of carrying into effect governmental law which is an expression of governments authoritative allocation of values.
Administration performs the specific functions of Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Co-ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.
Having agreed that administration is a universal activity, it is then reasonable to explain international administration as ‘the organization and management of resources of international organisations and oversea establishments such as embassies and peace keeping forces which are made up of human social formations. This definition presupposes that there are international organisations of which membership cut across states/state-actors.
International administration is a specialty in the wider administration world that focuses on distinctive character and changing influence of various organizations in the service delivery as well making of policies.
International Organisations are voluntary associations of either nation states or non-governmental, non-state actors. The three (03) basic types of international organisations are global, regional and sub-regional.
The twentieth century witnessed the most rapid evolution of the international system. The bipolar system declined as other countries and transnational actors became more important as the expense of continuing confrontation strained America and Soviet budget resources, and the relative power of the two super powers declined. The bipolar system ended in 1991 when the Soviet Union implosed. During this century, nationalism also undermined the foundations of multiethnic empires. For example, the colonial empires dominated by Great Britain, France, and other European powers also came to an end. There are numerous new trends, uncertainties, and choices to make in the current century. The international organizations have become much more numerous and more central to the operation of the international system. In this course, factors and trends that will affect the world system in the current century are examined. These include political structure and orientation, security, international economics and the quality of life.
The Emerging Polar Structure
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the bipolar structure, an even more important change is the now-evolving international system. What will it be like? The world may once again return to multi-polar structure, one that is structured and operates much like the system before the World War II. This is because China, Germany, Japan, Russia, India and the United States may each play a polar role. A future multi-polar system may be characterized by patterns and alliances that may be more complex and fluid than the old bipolar system. Who is allied with whom and in opposition to whom will depend more on individual issues and on stuffing circumstances than on fixed alliance system. For instance, trade relations among the western countries are strained. Also, the power of the major states will be limited or restrained by international organizations, international law, and independence or a global or regional organization could become a pole.
International Economics
Economic interdependence and economic disparity between the wealthy north and the relatively less developed south affect the international system. The growth of economic interdependence is one significant change in the international system since the Second World War. Countries now depend on one another. One factor that has promoted economic interdependence is free flow of trade, investment capital and national currencies across national borders. One important impact of interdependence on usually every citizen in every country is that global finance affects everything from the prices of essentials of life to the interest paid on loans, mortgages and other debts. To deal with this interdependence, a hush of global and regional economic organizations such as the World Bank, the international Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) were created and strengthened. Association of South East Asian Nation (ASEAN), the European Union Mercosur in South America and the North American Free Trade agreement (NAFTA). The way to integration is not smooth nor is its future certain. Already, there are trade and monetary tensions among countries. Citizens of some countries are oppressed to surrendering their country’s sovereignty to the UN, the WTO or any other international organization. Some others are concerned with worker’s rights, product safety, and the environment etc. So there are worries that potential dangers to interdependence.
Economic Disparity between North and South
Wealthy and industrialized Economically Developed Countries (EDCs) in the Northern Hemisphere and the less developed countries in the southern Hemisphere co-exist in our global world. One basic fact however is that the economic circumstances of countries are not truly dichotomized; they range from general wealthy US to miserably poor Bangladesh. There are however, some countries of the south that have achieved substantial industrialization and where standards of living have risen rapidly. They are called newly industrialized countries (NICs) e.g. China, India, Brazil etc. Moreover, there are wealthy people in the south and many poor people in the North. The North is predominantly a place of reasonable economic security, literacy, and adequate health care. On the other hands, the lives of the people of the south are often marked by poverty, illiteracy, rampant disease, and early death. The big gap in wealth between the North and the south has devastating sequence for the poor. The children of the poor suffer an unconscionable mortality rate that is almost seven times greater than the infant mortality rate in the North countries. A ramification of the weakening western orientations of the international system is that this economic inequity is causing increased tension in the north-south relationship. The south blamed its poverty on the past colonialist suppression and efforts by the north to keep the south economically and politically weak- as sources of cheap raw materials and labour. Moreover, they also rebelled against the north control of the IMF and other international financial organizational for instance, the Asian “Tigers” attributed the collapse of their economy of 1997 to the North’s conspiracy to Kuwait their booming development. Whether this conspiracy theory is correct or not, the fact is that, efforts must be made for the wealthy countries to take account of the rash difference in economic conditions between themselves and the south and to do more to help. Both alternatives carry enormous costs.
TRANSNATIONAL PROBLEMS AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
INTRODUCTION Transnational problems refer to those globally shared problems or issues of common interest, which require exchange of information and services. Fundamental among these problems are the ecological state of the world, and sustainable development. Sustainable development is how third world can continue to sustain development and protect its environment and this is the link with the ecological state of the world.
The Ecological State of the World
In the view of the environmental pessimist, the rapidly growing world population coupled with the expanding global economy are outgrowing earth's ecosystems and evidence of this can be seen in shrinking forest, eroding soils, falling water tables, rising temperatures, disappearing plants and animal species. This development it is opined, can make the world face "wholesale ecosystem collapse". To prevent this, will require a massive undertaking by any historical yardstick. Some pessimistic analysts also believed or foresee "environmental scarcities" which may eventually lead to future warfare among nations. For instance, scarcities of renewable resources are already carrying some conflict in the world. Environmental optimists take a different view of the world and its future. They expressed the view that the sky remains safely in its traditional location and that with reasonable prudence there is no need to fear for the future. It is their argument that we will be able to meet our needs and continue to grow economically through conservation, population controls, and most importantly, technological innovation. They believe that new technology can find and develop oil fields; synthetic can replace natural resources, and fertilizers hybrid seeds, and mechanization can increase acreage yields. Desalinization and whether control can meet water demands. Energy can be drawn from nuclear, solar, thermal, wind, and hydroelectric sources. It is however, instructive to note that the optimists do not dismiss the problems that the world faces. They believe that progress does not come automatically and that the world needs the best efforts of all humanity to improve its lot. This effort will be provided by people who are skilled, spirited and hopeful young people will exert their wills and imaginations for their own benefit and the rest of the world would also benefit.
INTERNATIONAL DECISION MAKING
INTRODUCTION
Organizations, be it national or international, are deliberate constructs in the sense that they are set up to pursue certain clearly spelt out goals and objectives. These objectives can be achieved by the effective utilization of the human element who act for and on behalf of their employers. In carrying their assigned duties, they have to take decisions that would help them achieve maximally. If, at any time, a decision taken turns, out bad they receive the blame, and if good, they share the praise. These decision makers constitute severally and collectively the actors in the organization. Since decision-making is a universal culture in all human organizations, analysis of decisions to be taken are usually carried out or done. This aptly applies to the international outer as well. Usually at the international level not only are they many but also actors diverse in social, economic, and political characteristic. Most commonly, analyst use three levels of analysis. The levels are system-level analysis, state-level analysis and individual-level analysis.
System-level analysis is a worldview that adopts a "top-down" approach to analyzing global decision-making. This posits that the world's social-economic-political structure and pattern of interaction (the international system) strongly influence the policies of states and other international actors. Therefore, understanding the structure and pattern of the international system will lead to how decisions are made at the international level.
State-level analysis is a view in which the concern is with the characteristics of an individual country and the impact of those traits on the country's behaviour. This level theorizes that state (countries) are the key international actors. Therefore, understanding how states as complex organizations decide policy will lead to understanding how international politics operate.
Individual-level analysis focus on the people. This level argues that in the end, people make policy. Therefore, understanding how people (individuals or groups) decide on policy will enable us understand how international politics operate.

NORTH-SOUTH RELATIONS
The   world   is   divided   into   two   economic   spheres:   a   wealthy   North   comprising  the  Economically  Development  countries  and  a  less  rich  or   wealthy   South,   which   consists   of   less   Developed   countries.   The   dichotomy   comes   from   the   fact   that   most   EDC   lie   to   the   North   in   Northern  America  and  Europe  and  most  LDCs  are  farther  to  the  south  in   Africa,  Asia  and  Central  and  South  America.  They  are  differentiated   from  each  other  by  economic  and  political  factors  more  than  by  their   geographical  position.  
 The  Two  Economic  Worlds  
 What  sharply  explains  the  objectives  distinction  between  the  North  and   the  South  is  the  economic  factor.  The  North  is  much  wealthier  than  the   South.   As   at   year   2000   for   example   the   average   per   capital   Gross   National  product  of  the  wealthy  North  was  $25,710  to  the  south's  &   1,260.    The  second  factor  is  the  structure  of  the  economy.  While  the   countries  of  the  North  tend  to  have  more  diverse  economic  bases  that   rely   for   their   income   on   the   production   of   a   wide   variety   of   manufactured   goods   and   the   income   of   diverse   and   sophisticated   services,  and  the  countries  of  the  south  usually  rely  on  fewer  products,   for  their  income;  usually  from  agricultural  produce  or  raw  materials,   such  as  solid  minerals.  These  two  classifications,  however,  pose  some   difficulties.  One  is  that  the  classifications  are  impressed  and  subject  to   change  because  on  the  basis  of  per  capital  GNP  for  example  the  world   Bank  divides  countries  into  four  groups:  Low  income  ($760  or  less),   lower-middle-income   (&761-&3,030),   upper-middle-income   high-   income  group  (more  than  &  9361).  But  it  is  on  record  that  four  countries   (Israel,  Kuwait,  Singapore,  and  United  Arab  Emirates)  usually  grouped   as  part  of  the  south,  fall  into  high-income  group.  Moreover,  some  LDCs   have    moved    an   important    distance   towards    achieving   a    modern   economic  base  e.g.  South  Korea  (&8,600)  and  Argentina  (&8,030).  
 The  second  issue  is  the  classification  of  countries  especially  how  to  treat  Russia,  and  the  former  Soviet  Republics.  The  World   Bank   designates   them   as   transition   economies   (from   communism   to   capitalism),  some  of  them  have  a  reasonable  industrial  base.  Slovenia   ($9,760  falls  in  the  upper-middle  income  group  while  Tajikistan  (&370)   is  the  poorest.  Going  by  this  economic  information,  only  Slovenia  may   not  belong  to  the  LDCs.  
Blurred  as  this  classification  may  be,  it  is  still  useful  for  three  important   reasons.    
•   There  is  no  hiding  the  fact  that  the  countries  of  the  south  are   poorer  and  less  industrialized  than  those  of  the  North.
• The  reality   is  that  the  conditions  of  life  for  the  citizens  in  the  North  are  really   better  than  the  living  standard  of  the  relatively  deprived  people   who  reside  in  the  LDCs  of  the  south.  
•   Countries  of  the  south  are  economically  vulnerable  unlike  the   North.  For  example  LDCs  that  rely  on  petroleum  production  and   export  (e.g.  Nigeria)  when  the  price  is  exceptionally  low  like  in   the   1990s.   Non-colonial   political   expenses   of   the   IDCs   still   explains  further  the  North-South  dichotomy.  Most  LDCs  share  a  history  of  being  directly  or  indirectly  dominated  by  the  EDCs  of   Europe   and   North   America   or   in   the   case   of   the   former   communist  countries,  by  Russia.  
Approaches  to  North-South  Relations  
How  come  the  gap  between  the  North  and  South?  How  did  it  develop?   The   industrial   revolution   came   first   to   Europe   and   then   to   North   America.   This   brought   the   North's   industrials   searching   for   raw   materials  for  the  North  industries  and  the  search  for  market  for  their   finished   product   led   to   increased   direct   domination.   In   addition,   the   desire   to   seek   countries   to   symbolize   their   major   power   status.   Consequently.   Latin   Americans,   African,   Asians,   and   others   were   exploited  to  benefit  the  industrialized  Imperialist  Countries.    
Most  of  the  LDCs  achieved  their  political  independence  in  the  decades   following   the   World   War   II.   Economically,   the   south   remains   disadvantaged  in  its  relationship  with  the  north.  What  can  and  should  be   done  by  the  North  to  assist  the  south?  Scholars  have  put  forward  a   number  of  approaches:
Economic  Nationalist  Approach  
Economic  nationalists  operate  from  a  real  political  experience  and  belief   that  each  could  or  SHOULD  struggle  for  itself.  Therefore,  they  argue  that:  
•   An  EDC  should  be  governed  by  its  own  national  interest  when   formulating  trade,  investment  and  aid  policies  towards  the  south.    
•   The   south   calls   for   greater   equity   are   in   essence,   attempts  to   change  the  rules  so  that  LDCs  can  acquire  political  power  for  -   themselves.  
•   They  view  the  political  economy  as  a  zero-sum  game  in  which   gains  enjoyed  by  some,  means   losses   for  other  players.  They   therefore believe  that  providing  food  and  medicine  to  the  already   over  populated  South  will  only  encourage  child  bearing,  disease,   infant   mortality   and   increase   longevity   thereby   worsening   the   impoverishment  of  the  south.  
The  Economic  Internationalist  Approach  
This  approach  believes  that:  
•   Development   is  possible   within   the   existing   international economic  structure.
•   The   major   problems   to   the   south’s   development   are  weaknesses  in  acquiring  capital,  shortage  of  skilled  labour  and   some   of   its   domestic   economic   policies   such   as   centralized   planning  and  protectionism.  
•   These  problems  can  be  solved  through   free  trade  and  foreign   investment   supplemented   by   loans,   foreign   aid   and   reduced   government  interference  in  the  economy.  
•   Such    polices   will    make   unimpeded    international    economic   exchange   among   states   possible,   which   will   ultimately   create   {prosperity  for  all.  Hence, for  them  the  global  economy  is  a  non-   zero-sum  game.  
•   Finally  they  believe  that  LDCs  can  be  intergrated  into  the  world   economy   by   removing   imperfections   in   the   system   while   maintaining  the  structure  and  the  stability  of  the  system.  
 The  Economy  Structuralist  Approach  
This   is   a   system   approach.   They   believe   change   in   the   patterns   of production  and  trade  holds  can  lead  to  the  development  of  the  south.  It  is   believed  that  not  only  should  the  poor  be  allowed  to  share  the  command   with   but   should   also   replace   the   wealth   of   those   who   have   been   controlling  the  world  economy  in  their  own  interest  and  act  for  the   exploits  of  others.    
Western  Patterns  of  Trade  between  North  and  South  
 The   historical   growth   of   trade   worldwide   is   characterized   by   unevenness.  Three points  about  the  patterns  of  trade  are  outstanding.   First,   trade   is   almost   dominated   by   the   countries   of   the   North   who   control  67%  of  the  merchandise  exports  and  76%  of  the  exports  in  goods   and  services  combined.  The  percentage  of  world  trade  shared  by  the   LDCs  in  relatively  small.    
 The  South  only  accounts  for  a  small  percentage  of  global  commerce.  A   handful of  countries  of  the  North  brought  54  percent  of  all  the  south’s   exports  which  means  that  the  south  is  heartily  dependent  on  the  formal   export  earnings.  This therefore put the  south  in  a  vulnerable  position.      
Types   of   exports   constitutes   the   third   pattern.   With   predominantly   export  manufactured  and  processed  products  the  south  export  mostly   primary  products  such  as  food,  fibres  and  materials.  For  example,  the   U.S  and  Chile  provide  a  striking  comparison.  Of  all  U.S  goods  exported   and  manufactured  products  account  for  82  percent,  and  primary  products   the  south  export  mostly  primary  products  such  as  food,  fibers,  fuels  and   minerals.  
The  North  South  dichotomy  reflects  the  reality  of  today’s  world.  The  world  is  economically  dichotomized  into  North  and  South.  While   the  North  is  very  wealthy,  the  south  is  much  less  wealthy  depending   mainly  on  primary  products  or  agricultural  and  mineral  products.   The   South,  a  junior  partner  in  almost  all  approved  parameters,  found  itself  in   this  position  because  of  accident  of  history;  most  of  them  were  formally   colonies  of  the  North.  While  some  countries  of  the  south  have  been   trying   and   indeed   succeeded,   to   some   extent,   to   break   the   yoke   of   underdevelopment,   many   especially   in   Africa   are   unfortunately,   still   trying  to  develop  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word.  The  implication  of  the   above   is   that   the   south   needs   strong   leadership,   individually   and   collectively  to  be  able  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the  North.  They  need  to   address  such  issues  as  education,  science  and  technology.  Technological   development   will   help   them   to   meet   the   challenges   posed   by   their   circumstance  or  situation.
SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION
The  world  economy  is  being  reshaped  by  new  technologies,  services,   and   trading   relationships.   Much   of   this   dynamism   is   fueled   by   ambitious  developing-world  nation-state  like  Brazil,  India   and  South   Africa.  As governments,  businesses  and  regional  blocs  in  the  global   south   expand   their   horizons,   they   increasingly   bypass   rich   northern   states.  But  is  this  "south-south  cooperation"  any  more  progressive  or  less   selfish   than   the   more   familiar   -   and   hegemonic   -   "north-south   relationship"?    

The  idea  of  "south-south  cooperation"  started  to  influence  the  field  of   development   studies   in   the   late  1990s.   It  was   fuelled   by   a   growing   realization   that   poor   nations   might   find   appropriate,   low-cost   and   sustainable  solutions  to  their  problems  in  other  developing  countries   rather  than  in  the  rich  north.  It  drew  on  clear  examples  of  existing  waste   and   alternative   opportunity;   for   example,   if   African   farmers   need   boreholes  to  access  water,  it  surely  makes  more  sense  to  access  India's   huge  pool  of  expertise  than  to  send  expensive  European  water  engineers.   The   concept   quickly   spread   from   the   seminar   room   to   the   policy   chamber.   By   1997,   Britan's   new   department   for   international   development  explicitly  aimed  -  under  its  first  minister,  Clare  Short  -  to   withdraw   from   its   aid   programmes   any   requirement   to   use   British   service  providers. The  intention  was  to  encourage  recipient  governments  to  spend  the  aid   more effectively  - especially on  solutions sourced from other developing     nations.  By the early2000s, some forward thinking   developing nations themselves were incorporating this altruistic  principle  into  their  foreign  policies.  Luis  Ignacio  Lula  da  Silva's  Brazil   is  just  beginning  to  make  Africa  part  of  its  wider  effort  to  build  the   country's   global   profile,   recently   it   granted   fellow-Lusophone   Mozambique   an opportunity to   install   and   staff   its   own   factory   producing   anti-   retroviral  HIV  drugs,  thus  reducing  its  reliance  on  expensive  imports.
China  and  Africa  
An   even   more   potent   example   of   "south-south"   cooperation   is   the   People's   Republic   of   China.   China's   presence   in   Africa   goes   back   centuries:  archaeologists  digging  in  the  ruins  of  Africa's  great  medieval   trading   states   at   Timbuktu   and   Great   Zimbabwe   have   found   fine   porcelain  and  other  evidence  of  a  trading  network  mat  spanned  half  the   world.  After  the  PRC  was  founded  in  1949,  the  new  states  based  its   relations  with  the  developing  world  on  a  defined  doctrine,  the  "five   principles   of   peaceful   coexistence";   it   also   used   its   own   legacy   of   colonial  aggression  and  experience  of  liberation  to  forge  links  with  the   African  nation-states  emerging  from  colonial  rule.    

China  in  the  1960s  lacked  the  resources  of  the  cold-war  superpowers,   but  still  invested  significant  energies  in  support  of  independent  Africa.   The  PRC,  driven  by   perceived  ideological,  anti-imperialist  affinities,   dispatched   Chinese   technicians   to   nominally   leftist   states   to   provide   military  training,  modest  economic  aid  and  in  fractural  monuments  to   socialist  solidarity.  The  era  of  "liberation  wars"  in  the  1970s  saw  China   choose   sides   and   patronize   its   favoured   forces,   as   in   Angola.   This   interest   receded   in   the   1980s   as   Chinese   development   efforts   were   diverted   inwards.   But   the   post-Tiananmen   period   gave   earlier ideological  bonds  a  fresh  twist:  the  hostility  of  many  African  leaders  to   democratic  pressures  and  (especially)  western,  "hegemonic"  conceptions   of  human  rights  chimed  with  China's  own  preconceptions.  

Throughout  the  1990s,  China  increased  its  aid  to  African  governments   and  resumed  its  earlier  rhetoric  of  "mutual  respect"  and  "concern  for   diversity"  -  a  discourse  that  resounded  strongly  in  a  continent  highly   attunes   to   the   perceived   neocolonial   reflexes   of   the   former   ruling   powers.  In  return,  Beijing  received  recognition  of  its  sovereignty  over   Taiwan,    indifference    to   its   human-rights   abuses,   and   support   in   international  organizations.  

In   2000,   a   new   China-Africa   cooperation   forum   agreed   to   a   joint   economic  and   social   programme,  one   that   lent   a   developmental   and   commercial  slant  to  the  "five  principles".  China  has  subsequently  been   well  in  advance  of  the  G8  by  canceling  $10  billion  of  the  debt  it  is  owed   by  African  states;  at  the  second  Sino-business  conference  in  December   2003,  China  offered  further  debt  relief  to  thirty-one  African  Countries,   as  well  as  opening  the  prospect  of  zero-tariff  trade.  The  tensions  in  what   might   be   called   China's   "developmental   evangelism"   in   Africa   are   evident.   The   ideological   underpinnings   retain   some   potency   and   the   principle  of  "non-interference"  in  domestic  politics  persists.  But  Chinese   commercial  interests  dominate  the  relationship,  the  strain  of  avoiding   entanglement  in  ethically  and  politically  complex  questions  increases.   For   China,   insensitivity   to   human-rights   abuses   can   be   finessed   as   respecting   "cultural   diversity",   but   this   gets   hard   in   a   more   open,   regulated  trading  environment.  Rapid  economic  growth  in  China  in  the   last  decade,  coupled  with  oil  exploration  and  economic  diversification  in   west-central  Africa,  has  created  new  links.  More  than  60%  of  African   timber  exports  are  now  destined  for  Asia;  25%  of  China's  oil  supplies   are  now  sourced  in  the  gulf  of  Guinea  region.
India – Africa Relations
The  relationship  between  India  and  Africa  has  been  on  for  a  long  time.   There  have  been  bilateral  links  between  India  and  Nigeria,  Ethiopia,   South  Africa,  Zambia  etc.  Some  factors  informed  the  closer  relationship   of  India  with  Africa.  One,  the  need  to  bring  the  economic  geographies   together  for  a  meaningful  relation.  Two,  to  find  the  affirmatives  and   synergy  to  improve  the  longer  time  relationship  and  institutionalize  the   mechanism  that  will  bring  businessmen  and  economy  face  to  face  with   each  other. Africa  and  India  believe  that  there  is  a  huge  unexpected  potential  for   strengthening  the  relationship,  that  there  are  common  aspirations  and challenges   and   that   there   are   common   opportunities   for   working   together.    India  also  believes  and  rightly  too  that  political  stability  is   very  central  to  India  and  Africa  relationship.  Where  there  is  crisis  in   terms  of  political  stability  you  automatically  have  certain  doubts  and   concerns  in  the  people  trade  in  markets  where  there  is  political  stability.  
India's  objective  is  trade  in  goods  and  services.  She  is  expected  to  seize   the  opportunities  available  in  Africa  to  invest  and  to  cooperate  with   Africa  in  the  areas  of  trimming  and  capacity  building  and  sharing.  India   wants  to  relate  with  Africa  in  specific  areas  of  information  technology,   biotechnology,  drugs  and  pharmaceuticals  cooperation  in  research  and   development,   energy,   small   and   medium   enterprises.   All   these   are   expected  to  be  reciprocated  by  Africa  through  the  supply  of  oil  minerals   and  other  raw  materials.  India  can  sell  finished  products  automobile  and   components,   machine   tools,   transportation   equipment   and   pharmaceuticals  and  can  help  to  develop  in  institutional  buildings.  

India  expects  Africa  to  realize  that  both  sides  can  learn  from  each  other;   that   Africa   can   contribute   a   lot   to   Indian   economic   development.   Second,  India  expects  a  long  term  partnership  with  Africa.  Third,  to  find   avenues  together  to  exploring  markets  outside  India  and  Africa.  India   thinks  this  can  only  be  achieved  in  Africa  by  the  formation  of  industry   association   in   each   country;   and   with   which   India   can   share   its   experience.  
India  is  also  ready  and  happy  to  work  with  NEPAD;  which  is  a  good   initiative  to  her.   In  the  area  of  capital  fund,  Indian  financial  institutions  will  assist  to   ensure  business  success.  She  would  also  assist  Africa  in  the  area  of   information  technology.  
Africa  has  the  next  highest  GDP  to  South  East  Asia,  in  terms  of  growth.   The  growth  is,  probably,  going  to  explode  in  the  next  five  years.  For the   real growth  to  take  place,  it  needs  to  be  more  of  knowledge  and  power.   In order for  that  to  happen  there  is  need  for  people  who  have  been  taught   and  who  are  ready  to  teach  others.   Second, there are  potentials  for  development  in  both  continents  such  as   high   human   population;   India   has   a   population   of   over   one   billion.   Africa has the  raw  material  and  India  has  the  resources,  energy  needs   and  security  needs.
China-Nigeria Relations
Nigeria  and  China  have  finally  defined  their  bilateral  relations  capable   of  impacting  positively  on  their  respective  economies.  China's  recent   business  activities  in  Nigeria  increased  to  an  all-time  high  figure  of   $2.83  billion  (about  M370  b)  in  2005  trade.  This  is  meant  to  consolidate   China's  hold  on  Nigeria  as  most  important  trading  partner  South  of  the   Sahara.  
In  the  spirit  of  South-South  cooperation,  several  economic  agreements   between  the  two  countries  were  signed  and  a  cooperative  framework   developed   for   the   realization   of   greater   relations.   China   had   also   announced a  46-million-yuan  aid  to  Nigeria.  
Prior  to  these  agreements  the  Chinese  had  handled  and  helped  to  fix  the   ailing  Nigerian  railway  and  also  had  some  level  of  presence  in  sundry   infrastructure  development.  

The  rising  Chinese  interest  in  Nigeria  has  since  resulted  in  January's   2006  acquisition  of  a  $2.3-billion  majority  stake  in  a  major  oil  field,  a   development   Britain   criticized   for   not   carrying   corresponding   responsibilities.   Parts  of  the  agreements  between  the  two  countries  covered  such  areas  as   a  technical  cooperation  grant  of  40million  Yuan  (about  N700m),  five   million   Yuan   for   anti   malaria   medicine   and   a   training   course   for   comprehensive  malaria  prevention  and  control  by  China.   The  agreement  also  involved  a  memorandum  of  undertaking  (MOU)  for   the   National   Information   Technology   of    Nigeria   and   the   Uwaei   Technologies  of  China  and  a  petroleum  cooperation  deal  between  the   Ministry   of   Petroleum   Resources   and   the   China   National   Petroleum   Corporation.   Nigeria  has  also  reaffirmed  the  grant  of  four  oil  blocks  to  China.  A   breakdown  of  the  allocation  shows  that  while  two  are  located  in  the  oil   rich  Niger  Delta,  the  others  are  to  be  found  at  the  Nigerian  side  of  the   Lake  Chad  basin.  China  is  also  to  take  over  the  ailing  Kaduna  refinery,   while  building  a  major  power  generating  plant  in  the  country.
China  has  also  proposed  to  Nigeria  a  five-point  plan  for  Sino-Africa   strategic  partnership.  To  build  this  partnership,  China  and  Africa  should:  
 • Strengthen  political  and  mutual  trust,  
• Expand  win-win  economic  cooperation  
• Increase  cultural  interaction,  
• Strengthen  security  cooperation  and  
• Maintain  close  relationship  in  international  affairs.
The   military   contract   agreement   of   Nigeria   with   China   involves   Nigeria's  continuous  interest  in  the  acquisition  of  the  Chinese  15F-7N1   multipurpose  combat  and  trainer  aircraft.  The  Nigeria  Airline  will  take   delivery   of   12F-7NI   multirole   combat   jets   and   three   FT-7NI   trainer   aircraft.    The   deal   also   includes   the   provision    structures   for   the   installation   of   new   navigational   equipment   and   facilities,   building   a   simulator  training  for  the  pilots  and  engineers,  including  the  installation   of  an  oxygen  plant.  

Finally,  one  of  the  projects  being  handled  by  Chinese  firms  in  Nigeria  is   the  Nigerian  Communications Commission  Building  in  Abuja.
The  South  African  Alternative  
Amidst  the  dynamism  of  the  East  Asian  economies,  it  is  tempting  to   forget  that  the  continent  itself  is  generating  an  economic  powerhouse.   South  Africa,  freed  of  its  apartheid-era  isolationist  shackles,  has  become   an  interested  and  aggressive  explorer  of  the  rest  of  the  continent.  The   South  African  model  is  mixed:  private  companies  led  the  charge  into  the   new  mobile  telecommunications  sphere,  household  names  like  Shoprite   followed   across   the   continent,   while   'parastatals'   (state-owned   enterprises)  are  also  active.  South Africa’s  economically  liberal  instincts   have  been  contained  by  the  job-loss  fears  of   leftist  coalition  partners,   and   SA   has   commercialized   rather   than   fully   privatized   key   state   enterprises  such  as  the  power  utility  Eskom.  This  entity  has  reinforced   SA's   peace   plan   for   the   Democratic   Republic   of   Congo   by   committing  its  own  $500-million  investment  to  the  Inga  dam,  the  3,500-   megawatt  hydroelectric  facility  on  the  Congo  River.  This  project  would   undoubtedly  light  up  the  DRC's  cities but  Eskom's  greatest  benefit  is   probably  trying  the  potentially  huge  electricity  resources  into  a  regional   grid  which  would  feed  much-needed  power  supplies  to  South  Africa's   industrial  zones.    

This   project   aptly   sums   up   the   dual   nature   of   developing-world   investment  in  Africa.  Is  such  investment,  as  Mbeki  of South Africa would  have  it,  good   for  all  involved  or  is  it  simply  a  new  wave  of  economic  colonization   which  will  leave  most  of  Africa  with  as  few  benefits  as  in  the  past?  As   the  developing  nations  themselves  come  to  rival  the  investment  presence   of  the  G8  and  former  colonial  powers  in  Africa,  it  is  salutary  to  recall   that  'south-south  cooperation'  may  be  more  efficient, more beneficial  and  less  wasteful   than  the  west's  grand  gestures  but  it  is  no  less  self-interested.
Globalization of modern international economic relations
Globalization is a processes of fundamental change taking place in world economies and based on information and development of new technologies. It influences and intensifies connections among countries and involves virtually all sectors of economic activities.
According to scientists, globalization is a term, not only hard to define, but it is also difficult to provide the exact date of its beginning. Despite that fact, some of them conduct attempts to do it. Lord Dahrendorf claims that this date is the 20th of July 1969, when the first man reached the Moon and saw the Earth as a whole. This thesis explains that despite the Earth's diversity, it is still a uniform planet. The term "globalization" was made popular by Marshal McLuhan (Canadian Sociologist) in the sixties when he spoke of the ‘global village’.
There are many definitions of globalization, but there is still the lack of a standard one, which would fulfill its task in different scientific environments. Therefore there is a need of presenting a few definitions which treat globalization from the economic point of view. According to Anthony McGrew, the British economist who compiled a popular definition, "globalization is a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions, generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction and power  In sum, "globalization can be thought of as the widening, intensifying, speeding up, and growing impact of world-wide interconnectedness. By conceiving of globalization in this way, it becomes possible to map empirically patterns of worldwide links and relations across all key domains of human activity, from the military to the cultural [www.polity.co.uk/global/default.htm ]. The other definition was provided by UNCTAD, which says that globalization refers both to an increasing flow of goods and resources across national borders and to the emergence of a complementary set of organizational structures to manage the expanding network of international economic activity and transactions. Strictly speaking, a global economy is one where firms and financial institutions operate transnationally - beyond the confines of national boundaries [www.unctad.org]. The synthesis of most definitions is the approach of Anna Zorska, who claims that globalization is the world long-lasting process of integrating more and more countries  economies over their borders, as the result!

Globalization's characteristics
In order to better understand the globalization process,  it is necessary to introduce its main features:
  multidimensional character - manifests itself in many aspects of social life, in economy, in politics and also in culture. In globalization process, there are different actions, conducted at the same time;
  complexity - globalization consists of a huge amount of sub-processes, spread allover the world, which create the exact structure. There are four main processes in the world economy: the decrease of USA's domination, financial market   development,   globalization   of   companies'    activity,   ecological problems;
integration - connecting activities run on different levels: economies, markets, and companies by trade, agreement and investment connections;
  international dependence - the development of a particular entity depends on its activities run abroad and their success. This dependence can become one way dependence on a stronger foreign partner;
 connection with the progress of science, technology and organization -economies modernization, development of new production branches, increase of high qualified labor and new technology play a crucial role in the long-lasting globalization process. At the same time, globalization accelerates the technological progress;
 compression of time and space - the "world shrinking" phenomenon is the result of science and technology development. It is seen in the labor migration, products coming from all over the world, possibility in taking part in world's events (Television, Internet) and in the fast products' and services' delivery processes;
 dialectical character - clashing of processes and opinions which have opposing character: globalization - regionalism, integration - de-integration;
 multilevel character - the world economy is the highest level in the hierarchy, economy's branches, markets, companies, assets, products and services are lower in this hierarchy;
 international range - extension of activities to the international and worldwide level.  Some scientists list also other distinctive features of globalization, which are presented below:
 the creation of a global financial market - as the result of liquidation of obstacles and difficulties in capital flows;
 institutionalization of foreign trade - foreign trade is controlled by such institutions like: World Trade Organization (WTO), General Agreement on Tariffs   and  Trade   (GATT),   International   Bank   for  Reconstruction  and Development (IBRD) and International Monetary Fund (IMF);
 MacDonaldization - global unification of needs according to some products and services, especially in the food industry, electronics and car branches;
 sudden increase of Foreign Direct Investments FDI flows - in 1990's their growth exceeded 4 times the growth of world export;  domination of transnational corporations in the global economy – which are the main entities of the globalization process;
  geographical disjunction of the value added chain in the global scale – setting the part of chain (production of part of final product) in the place where the ratio of expenditures to effects is the most favorable;
 creation of knowledge based economy - huge capital investments in Research and Development (R&D) activities;
 creation of the fourth economic sector - traditionally, the economy was divided into three  sectors:  agriculture,  industry and services. Nowadays services   are   divided   into   further two   sectors:   traditional   services   and intellectual services.  The tasks of intellectual services are:   information processes, Research and Development (R&D) and information management. They all create the new discipline, which is The Knowledge Management;
 Redefinition of the term "country" - decreasing roles of countries as the result of growing roles of integration associations and international organizations.

Globalization's components
          There are many factors and determinants which influence on the globalization process. Some of them appear on the worldwide scale and other are realized in particular countries. If these factors are more and more advanced in the country, this country will better conduct the globalization process. The most important determinants are the following .
A. Global Markets
1. Financial markets - thanks to financial markets deregulation and capital flows  liberalization, their globalization process is the most advanced. Private capital is transferred very fast all over the world. Huge amounts of capital flows, financial transactions and a multitude of mediators have contributed to the creation of global financial markets. Nowadays they are working automatically and aside of the real sphere. The creation of electronic money, as the computer record, became a wonder of the contemporary world economy. In the new electronic economy, fund managers, banks, international corporations and many individual investors are able to transfer capital from one to another remote place in the world. Thanks to technology development and using the newest computer science solutions, very complex financial operations can be realized on different markets during 24 hours a day. Global financial markets have also dominated contemporary production factors allocation processes, recently. Nowadays financial markets are not stable, there are sudden changes of capital flows directions and financial crises are spreading very fast all over the world.
2. Markets of goods and services - globalization of these markets accelerated thanks to liberalization, opening of national economies and institutionalization of foreign trade global rules within the WTO. 90% of foreign trade is based on these rules. It develops dynamically and the share of trade in GDP increases in many countries. More and more goods are subject of foreign trade and many market segments offer products equal to standards and quality on the global market. The global consumer markets, ranges of products and brand names are becoming bigger. As the result of MacDonalization, consumers' needs and preferences are also similar. Only in some areas they are differentiated.
3. Job markets and labor migration - progress in this sector is rather not so great. Job markets are not global, but thanks to computer technology the work can be done in remote places without the employees' migration. The management staff is the most mobile in the global economy. The globalization process influences on local job markets, salaries, unemployment rates and migration. Migration can also result from tourism. Nowadays it is more and more popular, especially when flight tickets are cheap and global services and information are more developed.
4. Markets of technology, knowledge and information - Transport and telecommunication technology progress and computer science development are crucial factors which accelerate the globalization process. Computer revolution and telecommunication progress (electronic communication, Internet, e-business, cell phones, computers and programs) enabled the development of global interactions. The world transport and telecommunication network system helps to transfer ideas, goods, information and capital the most effectively. The computer technology progress causes that "the world shrinks" and events, information and ideas are at once spread all over the world. The global information revolution made changes in production, finance, foreign trade and in business. Services branches, with a weak position in foreign trade before, have become stronger and industrial branches gained the global range. Information revolution also created opportunities of production organization for companies' branches all over the world.
B. Global competition
The globalization process is connected with global competition, which becomes stronger on the international markets. If these markets are more connected with each other, companies have to coordinate their activities in many countries and competition conditions become more and more difficult. Liberty, liquidation of goods, services and capital flows' obstacles and possibility of doing business abroad, caused that the world economy's entities (companies, banks, financial institutions) on the one hand started to look for bigger profits abroad, but on the other hand they had to face the global competition. Globalization changes also the rules of game in gaining profits from competition. It puts the pressure on mergers and acquisitions in order to possess a long-lasting competitive advantage. Both companies and national economies have to take actions to fight with global competition. This competition sets the paths of production restructuring, its organization and fastens the technology progress.
C. Global economic activity. In the last decade, the high dynamism of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) contributed to the globalization process of goods, services and financial markets. It was even higher than the dynamism of world trade. Thanks to trade and capital flows liberalization and possibility of doing business abroad, more and more companies transfer their capital and technology to other countries in order to be more efficient. Globalization creates favorable conditions for expansion and profits. Foreign Direct Investments change streams and structure of international trade and influence on development processes. Companies realize global expansion strategies, reorganize and change management methods in order to decrease cost, improve profits, minimize the risk and possess a competitive advantage on the global market.          International corporations activities reinforce the globalization process, because they are able to adjust to new conditions the most effectively. They act on different markets and increase the flows of capital, goods, services and technology. Corporations join and cooperate with each other. They conduct very complex investments and make strategic decisions concerning allocation of resources. Former, this was the role of countries and governments. Nowadays corporations' position still grows on the global market.
D. Global industry production Technological changes, progress in the computer science, the development of telecommunication and the decrease of transport costs created new possibilities for many industrial branches and improved the organization of production. The basis of production internationalization is technology progress, markets liberalization and the increase of production factors mobility. These industrial changes are the result of creating complex production connection networks between companies in many countries. Globalization is connected with companies new activities and their specialization in the global scale (investments, trade, production, technology development, Research and Development - R&D, new products and marketing). Companies' global strategies allow them to settle production in particularly favorable conditions. Their development results from headquarters' activities in connection with other cooperating companies in the world. Acting on the global market is supported by disseminating of market institutions, organizational structures, management methods, production systems, data processing methods, communication, and law regulation in the worldwide scale.

E. Global relationships and interactions
Nowadays, the high degree of relationships and connections between economies causes that a phenomenon existing in one country or region is easily transferred to other countries or regions. Unfortunately, the most often this concerns crises. The development of particular countries often depends on the situation on the main stock exchanges and on the currency markets. In the past, most countries were independent on sudden changes of other markets. The pace of crises' transfer is very dangerous especially for emerging markets. Now, remote economic and political events have a stronger direct influence on other countries than ever before (financial crises). Additionally, actions and decisions made in one country can have global implications and influence on economy, politics and lives in other countries. As the result of trade, production, financial, investment and technological connections between countries, the world economy is not the sum of individual markets any more, but has become an integrated market system.
F. Education Nowadays, in the era of globalization, the education system correlates with new global economic requirements. It is the result of problems the society has to face: increasing changeability and uncertainty and deepening different social and economic risks. Therefore, there are a few challenges confronting education systems, which make it necessary to conduct improvements in those systems:  sudden development of technological knowledge;  countries' integration and world economy's globalization;  increase of importance of small and medium enterprises;  increase of costs of education.
Therefore, the education system has to be changed, too. Schools and universities should develop abilities of fast self-organizing and enterprising adaptability to continuously changing conditions. Modernity and entrepreneurship have become the most important and the most difficult challenges of education in the XXI century. The experts claim the new education system should be a proinvestment. It is to be based on the development of individual creative abilities and on preparation to taking part in innovative organizational cultures and institutions, where innovations are created. Therefore, pupils should be taught innovation from the lowest education level – the primary school. Virtual organizations play also a crucial role in the education process. They are the source of innovation and posses the ability of elastic adjustment to new conditions. Pupils and students should take part in practice and education exchange programs, because this teaches them how to act in conditions of other cultures and traditions and how to cooperate with people from other countries. The education system also has to be continuously improved, because change is one of the most important features of the global economy.
G. Ecology Global problems are some of the features of the world economy and they are thought to be a result of the integration process. Nowadays these problems are a danger for humanity and therefore they have to be solved not locally but globally. Environment contamination is the most global problem and it is connected with countries' economic activity. Currently, the contamination level is so high that it is hard to keep the environment in balance and also possibilities for human existence decrease. The world production has grown five times since the  II World War. Dynamic transformations (opening of economies, standardization of preferences and transport and communication development), being conducted in the last years, require a huge amount of natural resources and contribute to environment contamination at the same time. Human activities put pressure on environment through: overusing natural resources, contamination of natural ecosystems, pollution of air and water causing diseases, high population growth. In the globalization process the efforts taken in order to improve the environment are necessary and laborious. It is impossible to conduct them by one country or even by a group of countries. They have to be done globally, because nowadays the environment, like money, possesses a more international character than ever before.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
An international organization is an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence. International organization may simply be explained as any institution drawing membership from at least three states, having activities in several states, and whose members are held together by a formal agreement. There are two main types:
• International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs): non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that operate internationally. These include international non-profit organizations and worldwide companies such as the World Organization of the Scout Movement, International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières.
• Intergovernmental organizations, also known as international governmental organizations (IGOs): the type of organization most closely associated with the term 'international organization', these are organizations that are made up primarily of sovereign states (referred to as member states). Notable examples include the United Nations (UN), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Council of Europe (COE), International Labour Organization (ILO) and International Police Organization (INTERPOL). The UN has used the term "intergovernmental organization" instead of "international organization" for clarity.
The first and oldest intergovernmental organization is the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna.
The role of international organizations is helping to set the international agenda, mediating political bargaining, providing place for political initiatives and acting as catalysts for coalition- formation. International organizations also define the salient issues and decide which issues can be grouped together, thus help governmental priority determination or other governmental arrangements.
Not all international organizations seek economic, political and social cooperation and integration.
A supranational union is a type of multinational political union where negotiated power is delegated to an authority by governments of member states. The concept of supranational union is sometimes used to describe the European Union(EU), as a new type of political entity. The EU is the only entity which provides for international popular elections,[dubious – discuss] going beyond the level of political integration normally afforded by international treaty. The term "supranational" is sometimes used in a loose, undefined sense in other contexts, sometimes as a substitute for international, transnational or global. Another method of decision-making in international organisations is intergovernmentalism, in which state governments play a more prominent role.
Characteristics of IO’s:
i. Membership of IO’s is always open for the sovereign states.
ii. Member states are treated equally.
iii. IO’s lack binding force
iv. It develops mutual cooperation among member states.
Objectives of IO’s:
i. To promote international peace and stability.
ii. To develop friendly relations among states and people.
iii. To promote economic stability and social progress.
iv. Promote resolution of disputes through peaceful means.
Top 10 International Organizations
1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO):
The NATO was founded in 1949 in Washington. The foreign ministers of 10 countries signed a defense treaty that committed them to helping each other in the event of attack. There are now 26 country members with headquartered in Belgium.
2. United Nations (UN):
The UN was founded in 1945. Most countries of the world – a total of 191, are members. The general assembly of UN makes decision about peacekeeping and human rights.
3. Group of 8 (G8):
The Group of 8 is made up of the world’s leading industrial countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA and Russia). The head of the G8 countries meet each year to discuss global issues such as world poverty and security.
4. World Trade Organization (WTO):
The Swiss based WTO encourages International trade by establishing trade agreements between countries. With 153 member countries and consisting more than 97% of entire world trade, it propagates the International trade policies.
5. World Bank:
This International Financial Institution was founded in 1944 which works on reducing poverty. It helps developing countries by giving loans.
6. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO):
UNESCO was set up in 1946. It encourages countries to get together on matters such as education, culture and science.
7. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF):
UNICEF was set up in 1947. It works to improve the health and welfare of children and mothers in developing countries.
8. World Health Organization (WHO):
The WHO is a part of the United Nations. It promotes health matters worldwide and aims to raise medical standards and monitor diseases.
9. World Wildlife Fund (WWF):
The WWF was set up in 1961 and is the world’s largest conservation organization. its main aim are to protect endangered animals and the placed where they live.
10. International Monetary Fund (IMF):
The IMF was established in 1944 and promotes world trade. It has 184 member countries. Headquartered in Washington D.C., it works to improve the financial condition of its member countries.

SPECIALIZED INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
These  organizations,  whose  membership  slightly  differs  from  that  of  the   United   Nations   general   Assembly,   have   their   own   separate   budgets,   agendas,  and  personnel,  and  are  isolated  in  other  cities  than  New  York.   They  are  loosely  connected  with  the  Economics  and  Social  Council.  The   major  ones  have  been  categorized  as  development  (ILO,  UNESCO),   Finances   (IMF)   and   World   Bank.   One   agency   from   each   of   these   categories   shall   be   discussed   in   this   unit.   Each   of   these   specialized   organizations  deals  with  a  specific  concern.  
International  Labour  Organization  (ILO)  
The  International  Labour  Organization  is  a  United  Nations  affiliate  that   consists  of  government,  industry,  and  union  representatives.  The  ILO   has  worked  to  define  and  promote  fair  labour  standards  regarding  health   and  safety,  working  conditions,  and  freedom  of  association  for  workers   throughout  the  world.  In  the  early  1970's,  the  ILO  published  a  study  of   social  policy  implication  of  Multinational  Corporations.  Issues  touched   in  the  study  included  investment  concentration  by  area  and  industry,   capital  and  technology  transfers,  international  trade,  work  force  efforts,   working  conditions,  and  industrial  relations  effects.  The  study  concluded   by  writing  the  different  views  and  concerns  of  employers  and  workers,   and  it  recommended  that  the  social  problems  and  benefits  specific  to   MNCs  be  identified.  
Towards  the  end  of  the  decade,  the  ILO  published  a  report  of  series  of   country  studies  on  the  employment  effects  of  MNCs,  including  jobs  loss   and  gained  as  a  result  of  MNCs  as  well  as  the  quality  of  jobs  within   MNCs.  Some  of  its  important  conclusions  were:  (1)  jobs  were  growing   faster  in  MNCs  than  in  non  MNSc,  and  white-collar  positions  were   increasing  at  the  expenses  of  blue-collar  jobs,  and  (3)  one  key  reasons   for  this  employment  growth  was  the  research  and  development  intensity   of  MNCs.
International  Monetary  Fund  (IMF)  
As  trade  and  the  level  of  other  international  financial  transactions  have   increased,   the   need   to   co-operate   internationally   to   facilitate   and   stabilize  the  flow  of  dollars,  marks,  yen,  pounds  and  other  currencies  has   become  vital.  To  meet  this  need,  a  member  of  organization  have  been   founded.  The  International  Monetary  Fund  (IMF)  is  the  most  important   of  these.   The  IMF  was  founded  on  17     December,  1945  following  the  Bretton   Woods  Conference  at  new  Hampshire  in  1944.  At  inauguration,  it  had  a   total  of  44  member-countries  consisting  of  Western  European  countries,   the  United  State,  Japan  and  Canada.  In  November  1947,  it  became  a   specialized   agency   of   the   United   Nations   with   headquarters   in   Washington  DC,  the  United  State.  The  organization  has  at  present  138   members,   mainly   from   the   third   world   countries.   All   countries   are   contributors  to  the  fund  as  each  member  is  required  to  contribute  a   specific  amount  of  the  fund's  total  resources.  A  country's  contribution  is   determined  by  her  general  economics  condition  and  political  prowess,   while  a  country's  drawing  rights  is  a  function  of  her  quota  contributions.  
The  aims  and  objectives  of  the  funds  include:  needy  countries  with  short term  loan  facilities  to  offset  balance  of  payment  deficits  in  order  to  bring   countries  out  of  balance  of  payment  problems  to  help  remove  trade   barriers  imposed  on  international  trade  by  countries;  helping  members   countries   develop   her   productive   resources,   hence   encouraging   full   employment   and   national   income;   fostering   co-operation   among   member  countries  on  international  monetary  matters;  evolving  a  system   of  multilateral  payments  among  member  countries  in  order  to  eliminate   foreign   exchange   restrictions   frustrating   the   growth   of   world   trade.   Other  objectives  are  to  "bail"  out  countries  with  balance  of  payment  mal   -adjustments   as   quickly   as   possible;   encouraging   exchange    rate-   stabilizations   among   member   countries   as   such   fluctuation   has   been   militating  against  world  trade;  and  reducing  to  barest   minimum,  the   extent  of   disequilibrium   in   the   international   balance   of   payments   of   member  countries.
Methods  of  Operations  of  IMF  
Its  loan  is  on  short-term  basis.  This  is  injurious  to  developing  countries,   which  usually  require  long-term  loans.  Developed  countries  are  more   privileged  and  better  treated  than  the  developing  nations.  About  100   developing  countries  out  of  the  total  of  138  countries  have  only  28%  of   the  total  voting  rights  while  about  62  voting  rights.  Second,  accessibility   to  loan  depends  on  each  member's  quota.  Special  drawing  rights  (SDR)   to  the  fund's  resources  is  a  function  of  the  country's  contribution.  This   problem  limits  the  ability  of  developing  countries  quota  in  the  fund  is   small   due   to   her   economies,   which   is   predominantly   of   primary   products.  
 As  clearly  reflected  from  the  objectives  of  the  IMF,  its  primary  function   is  to  help  maintain  exchange  rate  stability  by  making  short-term  loans   available  to  countries  with  international  balance-of-payments  problems   because  of  the  trade  deficits,  heavy  loan  payments.  The  Fund  derives  its   usable   funds   from   hard   currency   reserves   placed   at   its   disposal   by   wealthier   nation   and   from   earnings   from   interest   on   loans   made   to   countries  that  draw  on  those  reserves.  It  also  holds  more  than  N100   billions  in  reserve  in  LDC  currencies,  but  they  do  not  trade  readily  in  the   foreign  markets  and,  therefore  are  of  little  use.  
Criticism  of  the  IMF  
In  recent  years  the  IMF  has  been  a  focus  of  struggle  between  the  North   and  the  South.  It  is  possible  to  divide  the  controversies  regarding  the   IMF   into   three   categories:   voting   conditionality,   and   capitalism   and   social  justice.   Voting  in  the  IMF  is  based  on  the  level  of  each  members  contribution  to the  Fund’s  resources  and  on  the  basis  of  this,  the  U.S  (17.7%).  and  the   EU  countries  (30.6  percent)  alone  control  almost  half  the  votes.  This   formula   has   one   implication.   The   economically   developed   countries   have  a  solid   majority  of  the  votes  and  with  the  Japan's  6.3  percent   added,  the  major  EDCs  easily  controls  the  decisions  of  the  IMF.  That  is   the  IMF  is  Euro-white  controlled.  This  dominants  control  has  made  the   less  developed  countries  change  that  the  funds  is  controlled  by  the  North   and  is  being  used  as  a  tool  to  dominate  the  LDCs.  

The   IMF   has   also   been   accused   of   imposing   unfair   and   unwise   conditions   that   use   its   financial   and   most   IMF   loans   are   subject   to   conditionality.  This  refers  to  requirements  that  the  borrowing  country   take  steps  to  remedy  the  situations  that,  according  to  the  IMF,  have   caused  the  recipient's  financial  problems.  The  IMF's  conditions  seek  to   entrench  a  capitalist  economy  on  the  LDCs  by:  
• Urging  them  to  privatize  their  state-run  enterprises   Reducing   barriers   to   trade   and   to   the   flow   of   capital   (thus   promoting  foreign  ownership  of  domestic  businesses).
 •   Reducing   domestic   programmes   in   order   to   cut   government   budget  deficits    
•   Ending   domestics   subsidies   or   laws   that   artificially   suppress   prices,  and
 •   Devaluing  currencies  (which  increase  exports  and  make  imports   more  expensive).  
Prudent  as  this  conditionality  may  sound,  it  has  the  following  drawbacks.  For  one,  they  violate  sovereignty  by  interfering  in  the  recipient's   policymaking  process,  which  is  hitherto  not  admissible  in  international   social   and   political   conduct.   Second   this   conditionality   either   intentionally  or  unintentionally  maintain  the  dependence  relationship.   Some   less   developed   countries   have   regarded   the   conditions   as   amounting to  “economic  colonialism".  Third,  the  capitalist  prescription   to  economic  problem  by  the  IMF  has  forced  recipient  LDC  government   to   harm   the   quality   to   life   of   their   citizens   by   reducing   economics   growth  and  by  cutting  social  services  in  order  to  maintain  a  balanced   budget.  
World  Bank  
The   most   important   development   agency   today   is   the   World   Bank   Group.   The   group   has   four   agencies   namely   the   International   Bank   Group.  The  group  has  four  agencies  namely  The  International  Bank  for   Reconstruction   and  Development   (IBRD),   International   Development   Association  (IDA),  the  International  Finance  Cooperation  (IPC)  and  the  Multilateral  Investment  Guarantee  Agency  (MIGA).  All  these  agencies realise  their   funds   from  money  subscribed   by  member  governments,   from  money  the  agencies  borrow,  and  from  interest  paid  on  the  loans   they  make.  
Like  the  IMF,  the  World  Bank  Group,  do  a  great  deal  of  good,  have   been  criticized  on  the  following  grounds:  First,  the  North  dominates  the   South  because  it  has  a  voting  formula  that  gives  the  majority  of  the  votes   to   the   handful   of   Economically   Developed   Countries.   Second,   it   provides   too   little   funding.   This   is   because   lending   has   declined   somewhat   from   the   early   1990s   when   measured   in   real   dollars.   In   addition,  the  repayment  of  loans  means  that  the  net  flow  of  funds  to   LCDs  is  lower  than  it  seems,  The  third  is  that  the  World  Bank  Group  is   caught  between  the  North's  concentration  on  "business  like,"'  interest-   bearing   loans   and   the   South’s   demands   that   more   loans   be   unconditionally   granted   to   the   poorest   countries   at   low   rates   or   without  interest  at  all.  Moreover,  the  World  Bank  Group  also  demands   that  recipient  take  sometimes  damaging  policies  which  LDSs  claimed   violate  their  sovereignty  and  hurt  more  than  they  help.


The   Philosophy   and   Objectives   of   the   Bretton   wood   Institutions  
 By   Bretton   Woods   institutions   we   mean   the   International   Monetary   Fund  (IMF)  and  World  Bank.  These  institutions  use  their  loan  facilities   and  the  debt  burdens  of  highly  indebted  developing  countries  as  basis   for   pressurizing   them   to   adopt   macroeconomics   policy   packages,   notably  stabilization  and  structural  adjustment  programmes  and  policies.   Their   underlying   philosophy   in   the   developing   world   is   the   free   enterprises/market  system  with  emphasis  on  greater  reliance  on  market   forces  in  economics  decision  working.  The  IMF  programmes  are  short   term   and   are   designed   to   adhere   a   sustainable   balance   of   payment   position   and   internal   price   stability.   Hence   the   fund's   programmes   usually  consisting  of  a  mix  of  demand  restraint  measures  and  policies   designed  to  "get  prices  right"  e.g.  reducing  budget  deficits  by  cutting   expenditure  abolishing  subsidies,  or  by  raising  taxes  or  user  fees  on   government  service.  
On  the  other  hand,  the  Bank's  programmes  are  medium-term  and  aim   mainly  at  raising  the  rate  growth  of  the  economy  and  improving  living   standards  in  developing  countries.  To  this  end,  its  programmes  include   trade   liberalization   and   measures   to   promote   exports,   relaxation   of   interest  rates  and  credit  controls  e.t.c.  
World  Trade  Organization  
General  agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade  (GATT)  is  one  of  the  most General  agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade  (GATT)  is  one  of  the  most   prominent   specialized   economics   IG0s   on   the   global   level.   It   was   founded  in  1947  to  promote  free  trade.  The  name  GATT  was  a  source  of   considerable  confusion  because  it  was  both  the  name  of  a  treaty  and  the   name  of  the  organization  headquartered  in  Geneva,  Switzerland.  The confusion  has  not  been  removed.  The  GATT  treaty  was  amended  to   create  the  World  Trade  Organization  on  January  1,  1995.  It  now  has  a   total   membership   of   about   142   and   many   others   are   seeking   membership.  
The  most  recent  changes  of  the  General  Agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade   have  stimulated  increased  world  trade.  Under  the  new  agreement,  tariffs   will  be  reduced  worldwide  and  in  some  cases  removed  completely.  The   percentage   of   products   entering   the   United   State   duty   free   will   be   increased  as  well  as  for  industrialized  countries  worldwide.  
The  World  Trade  Organization  now  has  power  to  enforce  rulings  on   trade  disputes  and  create  a  more  efficient  system  for  monitoring  trade   policies.  World  economic  powers  such  as  the  EU,  United  State,  Canada,   and  Japan  are  now  part  of  the  WTO.  Collectively  all  members  now   account  for  2/3  of  world  trade.
The  Structure  and  Role  of  the  WTO  
The  ‘Uruguay  Round’  created  the  WTO.  It  is  headquartered  in  Geneva   Switzerland.   A   country   can   withdraw   from   the   WTO   by   giving   six   months  notice  but  it  would  be  to  her  own  disadvantage  as  its  products   would   no   longer   be   subject   to   the   reciprocal   low   tariffs   and   other   advantages  WTO  members  accord  one  another.  

When  one  member  initiates  charge  of  trade  violation,  a  3-judge  panel   under  the  WTO  hears  the  complaints.  If  the  panel  finds  a  violation,  the   WTO  may  impose  sanctions  on  the  offending  country.   Each  country  has  one  vote  in  the  WTO,  and  sanctions  may  be  imposed   by  a  two-thirds  vote.  The  implication  of  this  is  that  domestic  laws  may   be  disallowed  by  the  WTO  if  they  are  found  to  be  defacto  trade  barriers.   Since  1995  a  lot  of  case  have  been  handled  by  the  WTO.  For  example,   the  U&S  alone  has  bought  more  than  50  cases  and  has  had  to  answer   more  than  25  complaints  by  other  countries.  While  some  of  these  cases   were  settled  out  of  cent,  the  United  States  prevailed  more  often  than  it   lost.  The  WTO  railing  dismissing  the  U.S.  complaint  that  Japan  was   discriminately  against  Kodak  surprised  the  Americans.  
Although  the  WTO  has  taken  off  well,  there  are  some  challenges  before   it.  One  is  what  will  happen  if  some  powerful  members  refuse  to  abide  by the  WTO  rules  and  reject  the  findings  of  the  judicial  process.  So  far   there  has  been  compliance  with  the  WTO  judicial  pronouncement.  For   example  when  the  US  and  the  EU  lost  a  case,  they  quietly  accepted  it.   Second,  how  will  some  members  handle  a  case  of  protest  by  the  citizen   of  a  member  country  against  the  decisions  of  the  WTO?
These   specialized   international   agencies   of   the   United   Nations   Organization  were  set  up  to  help  member  nations  address  the  critical  and   peculiar   socio-economics   problems.   That   is,  they   form   part   of   the   concerted  and  serious  attempts  at  helping  members  who,  for  one  reasons   or  the  other,  may  not  be  competent  enough  to  solve  the  myriads  of   problems  facing  them.  The  failure  or  the  little  success  that  has  attended   singular  efforts  at  meeting  their  local  needs  with  regards  to  public  goods   has  gone  a  long  way  to  necessitate  membership  of  these  developments,   financial  and  trade  organizations.    
 However,  there  is  no  denying  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  these  agencies   have  screwed  or  designed  their  policies,  programmes  and  rules  for  the   purpose  of  the  relevance  or  industrialized  nations  to  the  detriment  of  the   developing  ones.  This  is  not  denying  the  fact  that  developing  nations   have  recorded  some  benefits  from  being  members  such  benefits  include   access  to  loans  and  development  aids.
INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ITS APPLICATION
Contacts  among  nations  may  be  hostile,  competitive,  and  cooperative.   These  are  inevitable  today  among  nations  and  also  among  members  of  a   national  community.  Hence,  practical  need  rather  than  some  theory  has   initiated  a  process  in  which  the  increase  in  contacts  among  different   nations  -  economic,  cultural,  and  political  -  has  been  accompanied  by  the   growth  of  various  rules,  defining  rights,  duties  and  acceptable  behaviour   for  those  who  interact  on  the  international  scene.  This  body  of  rules  for   national  conduct  has  come  to  be  known  as  international  law  or  the  law   of  nations.  
What  is  international  law?  If  law  is  defined  as  a  body  of  rules  for  human   conduct,   set   and   enforced   by   a   sovereign   political   authority,   international   law   cannot   be   called   law   because   of   absence   of   supranational  political  authority  that  can  give  and  enforce  law  to  be   observed  by  all  nations.  If  on  the  other  hand,  law  is  defined  as  a  body  of   rules  for  human  conduct  within  a  community  that  by  common  consent  of  this  community  shall  be  enforced  by  a  power  other  than  that  residing   within   an   individual   (such   as   conscience),   then   international   law,   provided  the  existence  of  a  global  community  and  its  general  consent   can  be  proved.  

In  determining  the  effectiveness  and  completeness  of  any  legal  system,   national  or  international,  it  is  worthwhile  to  look  into  the  following  five   fundamentals:-  
 •   Does   a   given   legal   system   express   a   more   or   less   general   consensus  of  the  community,  and  is  there  a  community?
 •   How  and  by  whom  are  legal  rules  created  and  changed?  That  is,   what  is  the  nature  of  the  legislative  process?  
•   Are   the   rules   clear   and   accessible   to   all   members   of   the   community?  Can  codification  help?  
•   How   and   by   whom   are   legal   rules   interpreted   and   conflicts   resolved?  That  is,  what  is  the  nature  of  the  judicial  process?  
•   How   and   by   whom   are   the   rules   enforced   in   the   case   of   noncompliance?  That  is,  what  is  the  nature  and  effectiveness  of   the  machineries  of  enforcement?  
These   are  very   germane   and   central   to   the   effectiveness   and   completeness  of  international  law.
Fundamentals  of  International  Law  and  Morality  
What   actors   may   and   may   not   legitimately   do   is   based   on   both   international   and   domestic   law   systems   and   a   combination   of   expectations,  rules,  and  practices  that  help  govern  behaviour.  
 The  Primitive  Nature  of  International  Law  
Legal  systems,  domestic  or  international,  do  not  emerge  full-blown,  it   grows  from  a  primitive  level  to  ever  more  sophisticated  levels.  This   concept    is   important    to   understanding    international   law,    first    as   primitive  law  systems  as  international  system  does  not  have  a  formal   rule-making.  Rather  codes  of  behaviour  are  a  derivatives  of  custom, agreement  between  two  or  more  societal  members.  Secondly  absence  of   established   authority   to   punish   violations.   International   law   as   a   primitive  legal  system  has  two  benefits:  one,  international  law  exists  and   two,  it  encourages  us  to  think  that  international  society  and  its  law  may  \   develop  to  a  higher  level.  
The  Growth  of  International  Law  
The  beginning  of  international  law  coincides  with  the  origins  of  the   state.  As  sovereign,  territorial  states  there  is  a  need  to  define  and  protect   them  states  and  to  order  their  relations.  International  system  of  law  is   derived  from  the  ancient  Jewish,  Greek,  and  Roman  practice  coupled   with  Christian  concepts.  From  this  base,  international  law  expanded,  as   the  interactions  between  the  states  grew  and  the  expectations  of  the   international   community   became    more   powerful.   During    the   last   century,  the  concern  with  international  law  and  its  practical  importance   grew  rapidly  as  increasing  international  interaction  and  interdependence   have   importantly   enlarged   the   need   for   rules   to   govern   a   host   of   functional  areas  such  as  trade,  finance  and  communications.    
Also  our  awareness  of  the  threat  to  human  lives  and  environments  and   of   the   suffering   of   victims   of   human   rights   abuses   has   led   to   the   promulgation   on   such   issues   as   genocide   war,   nuclear   testing   and   human  rights.  
The  Practical  of  International  Law  
Some  scholars  have  argued  that  international  law  exists  only  in  theory,   not   in   practice   because   no   punishments   have   been   meted   out   to   lawlessness  such  as  war  and  human  rights  abuses.  But  this  is  not  true,   international  law  has  been  effective  in  many  areas;  states  do  accept  and   in  majority  of  instances  obey  international  law  as  law.  Secondly,  the  fact   that  law  does  not  cover  all  problem  areas  and  it  is  not  always  followed   does  not  mean  it  does  not  exist.   International  law  is  most  effective  when  it  applies  to  such  issues  as   trade,  diplomatic  rules  and  communication,  and  least  effective  when  it   applies  to  such  matters  as  natural  security  relations  between  sovereign   states.  But  international  law  and  world  values,  for  instance,  are  strongly   opposed  to  states  unilaterally  resorting  to  war  except  in  self-defense.   Iraq   invasion   of   Kuwait   was   violently   globally   condemned.   On   the   whole  the  fact  that  the  U.S.  regularly  seeks  UN  permission  to  act  like  in   Haiti  case  in  1994  when  not  long  ago  would  have  acted  on  their  own   initiative,  proves  compliance  with  the  international  law.  
The  Fundamentals  of  International  Morality  
Morality  or  concept  of  moral  behaviour  may  emanate  from  religious   beliefs,  secular  ideologies  or  philosophies,  the  standard  of  equity  (what is  fair),  or  from  the  practice  of  a  society.  In  so  far  as  moral  behaviour   remains  an  imperative  of  conscience  rather  than  law,  morality  can  be   considered   in   a   broad   sense.   Inspite   of   recurring   war,   human   deprivation,   persistent   human   rights   violations,   and   debilitating   environmental  abuse,  morality  still  plays  a  role  in  human  affairs.  More   importantly,   there   is   a   growing   body   of   ethical   norms   that   help   determine  the  nature  of  the  international  system.  The  UN-authorized   force  did  not  drop  nuclear  weapons  on  Iraq  in  1991,  event  through  it   arguably  would  have  saved  time,  money  and  lives  of  American  and  their   allies  by  doing  so.  Many  countries  give  foreign  aid  to  less  developed   countries.   National   leaders   regularly   discuss   and   sometimes   make   decisions  based  on  human  rights.  It  must  however  be  pointed  out  that   world  politics  operate  neither  in  a  legal  vacuum  nor  in  a  moral  void.  
The  International  Legal  System  
International  law  is  a  legal  system  based  on  four  critical  considerations:   the  philosophical  roots  of  law,  how  laws  are  made,  when  and  why  the   law    is    obeyed   (adherence)   and    how    legal    disputes   are    decided   (adjudication).  
The  Philosophical  Roots  of  Law  
Ideas  about  what  is  right  and  what  should  be  the  law  are  derived  from   sources  both  external  and  internal  to  the  society  that  they  regulate.  The   external   sources   can   be   divided   into   two   schools.   One   is   the   ideological/theological  school  of  law  which  holds  that  law  is  divided   from  an  overarching  ideology  or  theology  e.g.  Christians  doctrine  and   the  religious  scholarly  works  of  St  Augustine  and  St  Thomas  Aquinas.   The  naturalist  school  of  law  is  the  second  external  source  which  holds   that  humans,  by  nature,  have  certain  rights  and  obligations.  The  English   philosopher  John  Locke  argued  that  no  one  ought  to  harm  another  in  his   life,  health,  liberty  or  possessions.  Since  countries  are  collectivities  of  
individuals,   and   the   world   community   is   a   collective   of   states   and   individuals,  national  law's  rights  and  obligations  also  apply  to  the  global   stage  and  form  the  basis  for  international  law.  The  problems  with  this   source   are   that   it   is   vague   and   does   not   emphasize   other-regarding   interest.  For  instance  if  a  person's  property  is  protected  by  natural  law,   then,  for  instance,  it  is  hard  to  justify  taking  any  individuals  property   through  taxes  levied  by  the  government  without  the  individual's  explicit   agreement.  
The  internal  sources  of  law  include  customs  and  practices  of  society.   This  is  the  positivist  school  of  law  which  argues  that  law  reflects  society   and  the  way  people  want  that  society  to  operate.  Law,  they  argued  ought   to   be   codified.   However,   this   has   been   criticized   as   amoral   and   sometimes  immoral  in  that  it  may  legitimize  immoral  beliefs  and  was   once  widespread  and  widely  accepted,  but  it  was  never  moral  or  lawful   by  standards  of  either  divine  principle  or  natural  law.  
 How  International  Law  is  made   (Sources)
 Natural  laws  are  made  through  the  constitution  or  by  a  legislative  body.   In  practice,  law  is  also  made  through  judicial  decisions  (interpretation),   which   set   guidelines   (precedent)   for   later   decisions   by   the   courts.   Comparatively,   modern   international   lawmaking   is   much   more   decentralized.   There   are   four   sources   of   international   law   namely   international  treaties,  international  custom,  the  general  principles  of  law,   and  judicial  decisions  and  scholarly  legal  writing  as  well  as  resolutions   and   other   pronouncements   of   the   UN   General   Assembly.   Like   the   domestic  law,  it  contains  elements  of  both  external  and  internal  sources   of  law.  
International  treaties  constitute  the  primary  source  of  international  law,   and  are  codified  or  written  down.  Agreements  between  countries  are   binding  according  to  the  doctrine  of  pacta  sunt  servanda  (treaties  are   observed/carried  out).  All  treaties  are  binding  on  those  countries  that  are   party   to   them   (have   signed   and   ratified   otherwise   given   their   legal   consent).  Multilateral  treaties  are  another  source  of  international  law.  
Custom  is  another  important  source  of  international  law.  For  example,   marine  rules  of  the  road  and  practice  are  two  other  important  areas  of   law   that   grew   out   of   custom.   Sometimes   long-custom   is   eventually   codified  in  treaties  e.g.  the  Vienna  Convention  on  Diplomatic  Relations   of  1961,  which  codified  many  existing  rules  of  diplomatic  standing  and   practice.  
The  ancient  Roman  concept  of  jus  gentium  (the  law  of  people)  is  the   foundation   of   the   general   principles   of   law.   By   this   standard,   the   International   Court   of   Justice   applies   "the   general   principles   of   law   recognized  by  civilized  nations".  The  freedom  of  religion  and  freedom   from  attack  are  among  the  inherent  rights  of  people.  It  is  this  that  Iraq   violated  when  it  attacked  Kuwait  in  1990.  The  principle  of  equity,  when   no   legal   standard   exists,   also   has   some   application   under   general   principles.  
Inspite  of  the  fact  that  article  59  of  the  statute  of  the  ICJ  rejects  the   doctrine  of  stare  decisis  (Judicial  Precedents)  the  ruling  of  the  ICJ,  other   international   tribunals,   and   even   domestic   courts   when   they   apply   international  law,  help  shape  the  body  of  law  that  exists.  The  European   Court   of   Justice   has   exercised   the   power   of   judicial   review   (court's   authority  to  rule  on  whether  the  action  of  those  in  authority  violate   constitution  or  other  charter  under  which  the  court  operate).    
The  decision  of  international  representative  assemblies  is  another  source   of  international  law.  Though  the  UN  General  Assembly  cannot  legislate   international  law  the  way  that  a  national  punishment  does,  all  members   of  UN  are  bound  by  treaty  to  abide  by  the  decisions  of  the  General   Assembly  and  the  Security  Council,  which  makes  these  bodies  quasi-   legislative.  The  reason  is  that  votes  in  these  bodies  reflect  international   custom  and/or  the  general  principles  of  law  and  thus,  cleverly  enter  the   stream  of  international  law.  

Adherence  to  the  Law  
The   third   essential   element   of   any   legal   system   is   adherence.   The   hallmark  of  an  effective  legal  system  is  the  degree  of  compliance  and   enforcement.  Obedience  in  whatever  the  level  is  based  on  the  mixture  of   voluntary   compliance   and   coercion.   Compliance   takes   place   when   people  or  the  subjects  obey  the  law  because  they  accept  its  legitimacy   i.e.  authority  in  the  institution  that  made  the  ruler  and  or  a  free  that  the   ruler  are  necessary  to  the  reasonable  conduct  of  society.  Coercion  is  the   process   of   ensuring   compliance   through   threats   or   violence,   imprisonment,  economic  sanction  or  other  punishment.  In  international   law   the   two   crucial   factors   are   how   the   law   is   enforced   and   what   encourages   compliance   as   voluntary   compliance   is    usually   more   important  but  the  mixture  of  it  and  coercion  differs  among  society.    
On  the  whole,  the  degree  of  compliance  to  the  law  is  lower  in  the   international  law  system  than  in  most  national  system,  but  insofar  as   adherence  to  international  law  has  developed,  has  been  based  more  on   voluntary  compliance  than  on  coercion.  Legitimacy,  based  primarily  on   pragmatism,  is  the  key  to  international  voluntary  compliance.  
In all   legal   system, enforcement  relies   on   our   combination  of   enforcement  by  central  authority  (the  police),  and  enforcement  through   self  help  (e.g.  primitive  societies)  most  powerful  legal  system  recognizes   the   legitimacy  of   this.  All   legal  systems  evolved   over   time   and   the   international  system  is  following  suit.  International  law  continues  to  rely   primarily  on  self-help  to  enforce  adherence  (e.g.  Nigeria  and  Cameroon)   on   the   ICJ   judgment   on   Bakassi)   as   reflected   in   the   UN   charter's   recognition  of  national  self-defence.  However  evidences  of  enforcement   abound  e.g.  late  SLOBADAN  of  Yugoslavia  and  now  Charles  Taylor,   former  president  of  Liberia.  Taylor  is  still  being  tried  by  international   Tribunal  of  the  UN.  The  UN  authorized  military  action  against  Iraq   1991  aided  the  NATO  intervention  in  KOSOVO  in  1999  are  qualified   and  indeed  were  instances  of  armed  enforcement.  


Adjudication  of  the  Law  
Disputes  among  international  actors  are  resolved  by  means  of  primary   reliance   on   bargaining,   mediation/conciliation   by   neutral   parties   and   adjudication/arbitration  by  neutral  parties.  The  International  system  of   law  is  just  developing  and  the  institutions  and  attitudes  necessary  for   adjudication  There  are  a  number  of  functional  international  courts  in  the   world   today,   international   courts   of   justice   inclusive   and   the   most   important.  The  International  Court  of  Justice  (ICJ)  sits  in  the  Hague,  the   Netherlands  and  consists  of  15  judges  who  are  elected  to  nine  -  year   terms   through   a   complex   voting   system   in   the   UN.   Each   of   the   permanent  members  of  the  UN  Security  Council  has  one  judge  on  the   ICJ,  and  the  others  are  elected  to  provide  regional  representation.  It  is   essential  to  know  that  none  of  these  international  courts  has  the  authority   of  domestic  courts  to  enforce  judgment.   The  concept  of  sovereignty  remains  a  potent  barrier  to  adjudication.  The   authority  of  the  ICJ  extends  in  theory  to  all  international  legal  disputes.   Cases  come  before  ICJ  in  two  ways  when  states:  present  controversial   issues  between  them  and  when  one  of  the  agencies  of  the  UN  asks  the   ICJ   for   an   advisory   opinion.   So   the   issue   of   jurisdiction   is   very   important.  The  gap  between  the  court’s  jurisdiction  and  its  actual  role  is   a  matter  of  the  willingness  of  state  to  submit  to  decision  of  the  ICJ  while  some   signed   the   optional   clause   agreeing   to   be   subject   to   the   compulsory  jurisdiction  of  the  ICJ,  many  have  not.  Second,  regardless  of   their   agreement   to   accept   ICJ   jurisdiction,   countries   can   reject   its   decisions  in  specific  case.  In  1984  Nicaragua  took  US  to  the  ICJ  for   supporting  the  contra  rebels,  the  latter  argued  that  the  charges  were   political  and  therefore,  that  that  court  lacks  jurisdiction.  When  the  ICJ   rejected   the   US   objections   and   decided   to   hear   the   case,   the   US   terminated  its  agreement  to  submit  to  the  compulsory  jurisdiction  of  the   ICJ.  
Finally,   the   ICJ   has   little   power   to   enforce   its   decision.   Unlike   enforcement   of   domestic   court   backed   by   the   national   executive   authority,  the  UN  Secretary  as  its  executive  branch,  the  lCJ  does  not   have  a  source  of  strong  support  to  back  up  its  decision.  

The  Role  of  the  ICJ    
In spite  of  the  limits  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ICJ  and  other  international   courts  the  ICJ  still  plays  a  valuable  role.  First, its  rulings  help  define  and   advance  international  law.  Second,  the  court  can  provide  countries  a   way,   short   of   war   to   settle   their   disputes   amicably.   Third,   the   ICJs   advisory   opinions   also   help   resolve   issues   between   IGOs   and   thus   helping  to  advance  international  law.  For  example,  in  separate  actions,   the  UN  General  Assembly  and  the  World  Health  Organization  (WHO)   each  asked  the  ICJ  to  rule  on  the  legality  of  using  nuclear  weapons.  
Finally,  that  is  the  evidence  that  countries  are  now,  more  than  ever   before,  to  make  use  of  the  ICJ  and  other  international  courts  and  to   accept  their  decisions.  Conclusively, the  international  judicial  system   has  started  growing  and  with  tune  it  will  reach  maturity  level.  
Without  law,  there  will  be  no  offence  or  violations,  goes  the  aphorism.   Not  only  in  individual  contacts  are  rules  necessary,  they  are  equally   paramount  or  important  in  conducting  a  relationships  among  nations.   Hence  cases  of  violations  are  frowned  at  like  in  the  case  of  Iraq  invasion   of   Kuwait;   as   a   clear   case   of   aggression   against   a   sister   nation.   Violations  of  international  law  such  as  abuse  of  fundamental  human   rights  of  individuals,  child  and  women  are  clearly  checked  by  the  1948   charter  of  the  United  Nations  on  Human  Rights.    
While  international  legal  system  is  still  evolving  and  at  embryonic  stage,   it  has  gone  a  long  way  to  help  resolve  dispute  between  nations  e.g.   between  Nigeria  and  Cameroon  on  the  Bakassi  boundary  issue.  In  other   words,  compliance  with  the  system  has  helped  prevent  outright  wars   between  and  among  nations  and  therefore  helped  to  ensure  or  guarantee   peace  and  security  globally.



ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
We shall explore one Regional International Organization  and one International Civil Service.
Regional International Organization
Economic Community of West African States  
The   Economic   Community   of   West   African   States (ECOWAS) was   established  in  Lagos  on  28     May,  1975  after  fifteen  West  African  states   have  signed  the  treaty.  The  signing  of  the  treaty  followed  over  ten  years   of  discussion  among  the  West  African  states  under  the  auspices  of  the   Economic  Commission  for  Africa,  a  regional  development  agency  of  the   United  Nations.  Cameroon,  the  16th  Nation  joined  the  group  in  the  1990s.  
The   aims   and   objectives   of   the   community   include   promotion   of   cooperation   and   development   in   all   field   of   economic   activities   e.g.   transport,   energy,   telecommunication   etc.   among   member   state;   Promoting   and   raising   the   standard   of   living   of   the   people   through   cooperation,  increasing  and   maintaining  economic  stability;   fostering   closer   relatives;   encouraging   free   movement   of   citizens,   goods   and   services,  encouraging  the  programme  and  development  of  the  African   continent.  Other  objectives  include  establishing  common  customs  tariffs,   establishing   a   fund   for   compensation,   cooperation   and   development   within  the  sub-region  and  elimination  of  custom  duties.  
The ECOWAS has six organs.  These are the Authority  of  Head  of  the   state  and  government,  the  general  ministers,  the  executive  secretariat,   the   fund   for   cooperation,   compensation   and   development,   the   community  tribunal  and  the  technical  and  specialized  commission.  The ECOWAS is  administered  through   the  first  three  organs  and  the  community  tribunal.    
 The Authority of Heads of State and Government  
 This is  the  highest  authority  of  the  organization  and  is  made  up  of  Heads   of   state   and   government   within   the   sub-region.   It   is   headed   by   a   Chairman who holds office for  one  year  (the  office  is  rotational).  This   body meets once  a  year  but  extra-ordinary  meeting  may  be  called.  
The  functions  and  powers  of  this  organ  include  the  appointment  of  the   executive  secretary,  decision  making,  discussing  issues  pertaining  to  the   economy   of   the   sub-region,   approving   the   recommendations   of   the   council  of  ministers,  approving  all  treaties  and  agreements  entered  into   by  the  community,  and  approving  proposals  initiated  for  the  amendment of  the  charter  establishing  the  community.  
 The  Council  of  Ministers  
 This  Council  consists  of  two  ministers  or  members  from  each  member   state  and  meets  twice  in  a  year.  Voting  is  based  on  simple  majority.  This   council  performs  the  following  functions  and  duties.  
Implementing   the   decisions   of   the   Assembly   of   Heads   of   state   and   makes   recommendations   Appointment   of   the   two   deputy   Executive   Secretaries  who  assist  the  Executive  Secretary  in  his  duties.  

It  appoints  the  ECOWAS  funds  Managing  Director   The  body  prepares  the  agenda  for  the  meetings  of  the  Heads  of  State  and   government.  Recommends  the  appointment  of  the  Executive  Secretary   of  the  Organizations  to  the  Authority  of  Head  of  state  and  government.  
It  approves  the  organization's  budget.  
The  Executive  Secretariat  
The  executive  secretariat  located  in  Abuja  is the  administrative  organ  of   ECOWAS.   The Executive Secretary  is   the   head   of   the   secretariat.   He   is   the   principal   executive  officer  of  the  community  and  Secretary  General  responsible   for  the  general  administration  of  the  community.  Assisted  by  two  deputy   executive  secretariats,  he  holds  office  for  a  period  of  four  years  and  may   be  re-elected  for  another  term.  
The  Executive  Secretary  prepares  the  annual  report  of  the  organization;   he  is  the  Chief  Administrative  Officer  of  the  organization.  He  appoints   members  of  his  staff.  He  is  also  responsible  for  the  preparation  of  the   annual  budget.  
Functions  of  the  Executive  Secretariat  
The  secretariat  is  saddled  with  enormous  realities  and  responsibilities,   the  following  are  notables:  
 a)   The   secretariat   is   responsible   for   all   correspondence   of   the   community
b)   It  prepares  the  budget  of  the  community  
 c)   It  makes  arrangement  for  all  the  meetings  of  the  community  
d)   This  organ  prepares  the  agenda  for  the  meetings  of  the  Council  of   Ministers.
 e)   It  takes  custody  of  all  the  files  of  other  organs  of  the  community   in  the  secretariat   f)   It  executes  the  decisions  of  both  the  Authority  of  Head  of  state   and  governments,  and  the  council  of  ministers.  
g)   The  secretariat  initiates  the  formulation  of  policies  for  efficient   development  of  the  community.  
 The  Community  Tribunal  
 This  tribunal  resolves  disputes  among  member  states  making  up  the   organization  on  matters  affecting  the  interpretation  of  the  treaties  that   established  ECOWAS.  
International Civil Service
Scholars  have agreed  that  the   evolution  of  the  international  civil  service  involved  two  phases  namely   the  League  of  Nations  and  the  United  Nations.    
 The  League  of  Nations  phase    
 The  international  civil  service  had  its  origin  in  the  League  of  Nations   that  lasted  from  1919  to  1945.  The  league  charter  did  not  make  reference   to  the  international  character  of  the  secretariat  and  simply  stated  “The   permanent  secretariat  shall  be  established  at  the  seat  of  the  league”.  The   secretariat  shall  comprise  a  Secretary  -  General  and  such  secretaries  and   staff  as  may  be  required.  There  was  a  provision  for  national  secretaries,   each  to  be  assisted  by  a  national  staff  and  performing  in  turn,  the  duties   of   Secretary-General.   According   to   the   league   treaty,   the   duty   of   selecting  the  staff  falls  upon  the  secretary-General,  just  as  the  duty  of   approving  it  falls  the  council.  In  making  his  appointments,  the  S-G  had   primarily  to  secure  the  best  available  men  and  women  for  the  particular   duties  which  had  to  be  performed;  in  doing  so,  he  must  select  his  staff   from  various  nations  and  no  one  nation  or  a  group  of  nations  must  have   a  monopoly  in  providing  the  material  for  this  international  institutions.   But  the  staff  so  appointed  are  no  longer  the  servant  of  their  countries  of   origin  but  servant-only  of  the  league  of  nations  because  their  duties  are   international  in  nature.  
As  a  result,  two  essential  principles  of  an  international  civil  service   emerged.  First,  its  international  composition  and  two  its  international   responsibilities.   The   latter   enjoins   all   officials   to   discharge   their   functions  and  to  regulate  their  conduct  with  the  interest  of  the  league   alone  in  view  and  prohibited  them  from  seeking  or  receiving  instructions   from  any  government  or  other  authority  outside  the  secretariat  of  the   League  of  Nations.  Next  was  the  idea  that  international  secretariat  was   to  be  solely  an  administrative  organ,  avoiding  political  judgment  and   action.  This  idea  originated  from  Britain  where  in  the  19th  century  the   old  system  of  patronage,  political  or  personal  which  characterized  civil   service,  had  been  replaced  by  the  principle  of  a  permanent  civil  service   based  on  efficiency  and  competence  and  owing  allegiance  only  to  the   state  which  it  served.  It  followed  that  a  civil  service  so  organized  and   dedicated  would  be  non-  political.  
The   Secretariat   in   the   interest   of   the   League   should   not   extend   the   sphere  of  its  activities  and  the  decisions  of  the  various  organizations,   rather  it  should  take  it  as  its  first  duty  to  collate  the  relevant  documents,   and  to  prepare  the  ground  for  these  decisions  without  suggesting  what   these  decisions  should  be.  Moreover,  that  once  these  decisions  have   been  taken  by  the  bodies  solely  responsible  for  them,  it  should  limit   itself  to  executing  them  to  the  letter  and  in  spirit.  
Scholars  had  remarked  that,  were  the  secretary  General  to  be  allowed  to   address  the  Assembly  and  council  of  the  league  i.e.  enter  into  political   tasks  that  would  have  compromised  the  very  basis  of  the  impartiality   principle   essential   for   the   secretariat.   This   however,   does   not   mean   complete  exclusion  from  political  matters'  he  did  play  a  role  behind  the   scenes,   acting   as   a   confidential   channel   of   communication   to   government   engaged   in   controversy   or   dispute,   but   this   (behind   the   scenes)   role   was   never   extended   to   taking   action   in   a   politically   controversial  case  that  was  deemed  objectionable  by  one  of  the  side   concerned.  That  was  the  situation  as  at  the  time  the  UN  replaced  the   League  of  Nations.  
 The  UN  Phase  
 The  UN  secretariat  inherited  and  retained  certain  elements  of  its  status   under  the  League  of  Nations.  These  elements  include  the  following:    
The   regulations   on   independence   and   international    responsibility   forbidding the seeking  or  receiving  of  instructions  from  states  or  other   external  authority.  Under the  league  it  was  shown  that  an  international   civil  service,  responsible  only  to  the  organization,  was  workable  and   efficient.  

As  demonstrated,  in  the  case  of  the  behaviour  of  German  and  Italian   fascists,  that  there  was  a  danger  of  national  pressures  corroding   the   concept  of  international  loyalty.  This  necessitates  the  need  for  explicit   obligation  on  official  and  government  to  respectfully,  the  independence   and  the  exclusively  international  character  of  the  responsibilities  of  the   secretariat.
 It  was  also  recognized  that  an  international  civil  service  of  this  kind   could  not  be  made  up  of  persons  indirectly  responsible  to  their  national   governments.  This  was  with  a  view  to  building  up  a  staff  adequately   representatives  of  the  government  and  acceptable  to  them.  However,  the   great   majority   of   members   states   rejected   it   because   it   would   give   national  government  particular  rights  in  respect  of  appointment  and  thus   indirectly  permit  political  pressure.  

To   further   avoid   conflict   between   the   position   of   a   member   of   the   secretariat  and  that  of  his  country,  immunity  in  respect  of  official  acts   was   inserted   to   protect   the   officials   from   pressure   by   individual   government   and   to   allow   them   to   carry   out   their   international   responsibilities  without  interference.  However,  as  regards  the  functions   and  authority  of  the  secretary-General,  there  were  sharp  differences.  
The   UN   secretary-General   is   now   the   Chief   Administrative   Officer   (CAO)  of  the  organization  is  left  to  him.   The   preparatory   Commission observed   that   the   administrative   responsibilities  involve  the  essential  tasks  of  preparing  the  ground  for   the  decisions  of  the  organs  and  of  executing  them  in  cooperation  with   the  members.  
The  Status  of  the  International  Secretariat  of  the  UN  
The  charter  created  a  secretariat  for  the  organization.  The  secretariat  is   to  manage  a  number  of  staff  and  charged  with  the  administrative  duties   with   full   political   independence.   It   is   to   ensure   the   principle   of   neutrality.  The  charter  also  says  that  the  secretary-General  shall  perform   such   other   functions   as   are   entrusted   to   him   by   other   organs.   The   importance   of   this   is   that   it   entitles   the   General   Assembly   and   the   Security   Council   to   entrust   the   secretary-General   with   involving   the   execution  of  political  decisions,  even  when  this  would  bring  him  and   with  him  the  secretariat  and  its   members  into  the  arena   of  possible   political  conflicts.  
The   charter   also   added   political   responsibility   to   his   administrative   duties.  Article  99  also  confers  upon  the  Secretary  General  a  right  to   bring  matters  to  the  attention  of  the  Security  Council  but  the  implication   of  this  is  that  this  right  carries  with  it  a  brave  discretion  to  conduct   inquiries  and  to  engage  in  formal  diplomatic  activity  in  regard  to  matter,   which  may  threaten  the  maintenance  of  international  peace  and  security.  
The  combination  of  both  the  political  and  executive  with  the  internal   administrative  function  was  due  to  the  influence  of  American  political   system  on  the  organization.  This  has  some  direct  implications  for  his   selection.  Proposals  at  San  Francisco  to  remove  the  participation  of  the   security  in  the  election  process  failed  mainly  because  it  was  recognized   that  the  role  of  the  Secretary  General  in  the  field  of  political  and  security   matters  properly  involved  the  Security  Council  and  made  it  reasonable   that   the   unanimity   rule   of   the   permanent   members   should   apply.   However,  this  unanimous  agreement  is  only  limited  to  the  selection  of   the  Secretary  General  and  it  was  also  essential  that  it  is  protected  against   the  pressure  of  a  member  during  his  term  in  office.  
The  charter  also  lays  emphasis  on  the  personal  responsibility  of  the  SG;   it  is  he  who  is  solely  responsible  for  performing  the  functions  entrusted   to  him  for  the  appointment  of  all  members  of  the  secretariat  and  for   assuring  the  organ  that  the  secretariat  will  carry  out  their  tasks  under  his   exclusive  authority.  
The  new  charter  also  emphasized  the  need  for  the  recruitment  of  the   secretariat  to  reflect  international  composition  and  that  its  basis  would   be  as  ‘geographically’  broads  as  possible.  In  addition,  the  paramount   consideration  in  the  employment  of  the  staff  should  be  the  necessity  of   securing  the  highest  standards  of  efficiency,  competence  and  integrity.   The  League  of  Nations  also  emphasized  this.  

All  the  staff  of  the  secretariat  are  expected  to  be  neutral  in  the  discharge   of  their  duties.  Neutrality  means  that  the  international  civil  servant,  also   in   executive   tasks   with   political   implications,   must   remain   wholly   uninfluenced  by  national  or  group  interest  or  ideologies.  
The  conception  of  an  independence  international  civil  service  underwent   further   clarification   in   the   face   of   pressures   brought   to   bear   on   the   Secretary-General  by  the  member  states.  This  development  involves  two   complementary  aspects;  first,  the  relation  between  the  organization  and   the   member   states   in   regard   to   the   selection   and   employment   of   nationals   of   those   states;   and   second,   the   relation   between   the   international  officials,  his  own  state  and  the  international  responsibilities   of   the   organization.   This   relationship   involved   a   complex   set   of   obligations  and  rights  applying  to  the  several  interested  parties.  
In  response,  the  Secretary-General  and  the  UN  affirmed  the  necessity  of   independent  action  by  the  UN  in  regard  to  selection  and  recruitment  of   staff.   The   organization   could   accept   information   from   government   concerning  suitability  for  employment,  including  information  that  might   be  relevant  to  political  consideration  such  as  activity,  which  would  be   regarded   as   inconsistent   with   the   obligation   of   international   civil   servants.  It  was  recognized  that  there  should  be  a  relationship  of  mutual   confidence  and  trust  between  international  officials  and  the  government   of  member  states.  To  further  strengthen  the  independence  of  action,  no   national  government  could  dismiss  its  national  who  are  staff  members  of   the  secretariat  on  mere  suspicion  or  on  evidence  which  is  denied  the   Secretary-General   because   article   100,   paragraph   1,   of   the   charter   declares   that   he   is   not   to   receive   in   the   performance   of   his   duties   instructions  from  among  government.  
The   case   of   a   national   official,   seconded   for   a   brief   fixed   term   is   different  from  that  of  the  permanent  international  civil  servant  who  does   not  intend  a  subsequent  career  with  his  national  government.  It  was   concluded  that  members  of  the  secretariat  staff  could  not  be  expected   fully   to   subordinate   the   special   interest   of   their   countries   to   the   international   interest   if   they   are   merely   detached   temporarily   from   national  administrations  and  dependent  upon  them  in  future.  There  is,   however  room   for  a  reasonable  number  of  seconded  officials  in  the   secretariat  especially  to  perform  particular  tasks  calling  for  diplomatic  or   technical  backgrounds.  However,  to  have  so  large  a  proportion  of  the   secretariat  staff  depended  on  its  ability  to  function  as  a  body  dedicated   exclusively  to  international  responsibilities.  

We   can   therefore   conclude   that   in spite   of   the   strong   pressure   from   national   governments   or   members   states,   United   Nations   has   increasingly   succeeded   in   affirming   the   original   idea   of   a   dedicated   international  civil  service  responsible  only  to  the  organization  in  the   performance  of  its  duties  and  protected  insofar  as  possible  from  the   inevitable  pressures  of  national  government.  
International Civil Service Today  
Staff  members  today  are  required  to  make  commitment  to  the  United   Nations  as  did  all  their  predecessors.  As  international  civil  servants  they   are  charged  with  the  responsibility  of  translating  into  reality  the  ideas  of   the  United  Nations  and  its  specialized  agencies,  as  contained  in  the  UN   charter.  UN  staffs  are  part  of  the  international  civil  service  which  relies   on  the  great  tradition  of  public  administration  that  has  grown  up  in   member  states:  competence,  integrity,  impartiality,  independence  and   discretion.  International  civil  servants  have  a  special  calling:  to  serve  the   ideals  of  peace,  of  respect  for  fundamental  human  rights,  of  economic   and  social  progress  and  of  international  cooperation.  
 Today, UN secretariat staff  members  are  required  to  be  guided  by  the   principles  of  the  organization.  The values that  are  enshrined  in  the  UN   organizations  must  also  be  those  that  guide  international  civil  servant  in   all  their  actions.  These are fundamental rights,  social  justice,  the  dignity   and  worth  of  the  human  person  and  respect  for  the  equal  rights  of  men   and  women  (genders  equality)  and  of  nations  great  and  small.  Moreover, they  are  required  to  share  the  vision  of  the  UN.  
Loyalty  to  this  vision  that  ensures  the  integrity  and  international  outlook   of   international   civil   servants;   it   guarantees   that   they   will   place   the   interest  of  their  organization  above  their  own.  That  is  the  ethics.  What  is   the  vision  of  the  UN?  According  to  the  preamble  to  the  UN  charter,  the   vision  is  "to  save  succeeding  generation  from  the  scourge  of  war…..to   reaffirm  faith  in  fundamental  human  rights…..  to  establish  conditions   under  which  justice  and  respect  for  the  obligations  arising  from  treaties   and  other  sources  of  international  law  can  be  maintained  and  to  promote   social  progress  and  better  standards  of  life  in  larger  freedom”.